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  Prenatal Diagnosis

Posted by Timothy Best in Science And Society - Best - E on
​

The science behind prenatal diagnosis

Prenatal diagnosis is the screening or testing for genetic diseases or other conditions before a child is born. Although there are many different techniques and tests, I will focus on a few:

  • Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD): During an IVF cycle, cells from the developing embryo can be genetically analyzed for chromosomal abnormalities - usually trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome), trisomy 13 and trisomy 18. The parents can then determine which embryos, if any, to transfer into the uterus. It is also possible to determine the sex of the embryo.

  • Ultrasound: An ultrasound uses sound waves to “look” at a fetus as it develops in the uterus. Since sound waves reflect off of tissues differently depending on the density of the tissue, the sonographer can create images of the fetus’ external and internal anatomy. Ultrasound can be used to measure an embryo or fetus in order to predict the due date, detect twins, diagnose heart and other growth defects, measure heart rate, look for signs associated with Down Syndrome, and determine the sex of the fetus.

  • Chorionic villus sampling: The chorionic villi are a part of the placenta that arises directly from the embryo (as opposed to the mother). They are, therefore, genetically identical to the developing embryo. Chorionic villi can be removed from the placenta and genetically analyzed to detect Down Syndrome and other genetic disorders. CVS has a slight risk (.5-1%) of miscarriage, and can also lead to amniotic fluid leakage and/or infection.

  • Amniocentesis: A fetus develops in the amniotic sac, which is full of amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid contains fetal cells that have naturally sloughed off. The doctor, using an ultrasound image as a guide, inserts a needle through the mother’s skin, abdominal wall, uterine wall, and into the amniotic sac, away from the fetus. Amniotic fluid is then collected, and the fetal cells contained in the fluid can be analyzed for genetic conditions such as Down Syndrome. Amniocentesis has similar risks as CVS, although CVS can be done earlier.

  • Maternal Blood Testing: A relatively recently developed technique can detect fetal DNA in the mother’s blood stream. Thus, with a simple blood draw, the fetus’ sex can be determined, and it can be screened for a variety of genetic disorders.


Societal Impacts

While the above techniques may sound like wonderful advances in medicine, they also have their downsides. First, there’s a difference between screening and testing. A prenatal genetic screen - like maternal blood testing - only gives the level of risk of a condition, but it can not with 100% certainty diagnose a condition. Prenatal genetic tests - like amniocentesis and CVS - are more diagnostic, but also have higher risks for the pregnancy. And if a non-invasive screen detects a high risk for Down Syndrome, for example, the parents are then faced with the decision of whether or not to do a more invasive, high risk test in order to more accurately determine whether Down Syndrome is present. If the results of a CVS or amniocentesis indicate a genetic disorder, then the couple could be faced with the decision to terminate the pregnancy. At the very least, these weeks of testing and waiting for results can be draining and extremely stressful. Pregnancy can already be a stressful time, and these prenatal screens and test can add to that anxiety.


On the other hand, some parents feel that they’d like to know the risks, regardless of the outcome of a test. If a screening test comes back positive for a genetic disorder, then the parents at least won’t be surprised at the birth. They’ll have time to prepare, educate themselves, and possibly arrange for special care that might be needed for their newborn.


Some people opt out of the screens and tests altogether. They might argue that what’s meant to be is meant to be, and they’d rather spare themselves the stress and anxiety surrounding these tests and their results.


And finally, with PGD it is possible to choose the sex of your child. This is illegal in some countries, including Canada - but not the US. Given that IVF and PGD could cost $15000-$20000, the opportunity to screen embryos for genetic conditions and possibly select the sex would not be affordable for everyone. Is this fair? Should people be allowed to choose the sex of their children?


Personal opinions

As someone who loves science, I’m fascinated by these medical advances, and support further research into tests and screens like these. It’s exciting when new, improved tests come out that can help people get answers to their pregnancy concerns, and hopefully allay some of their fears. However, it’s easy for me to support these tests in a general, abstract way. It becomes more complicated when we’re talking about real pregnancies in my personal life. I’ve gone through some of these discussions and decisions, and sometimes there is no easy answer. I can see why people would be in the “no testing” camp - the screenings and testing definitely can raise anxiety and stress levels during pregnancy, which can already be pretty stressful. Still, I’m glad the tests are available, and I think they should continue to be offered to pregnant women. Key to this though, is that they need to be able to make informed decisions. Through discussions with their doctor and a knowledgeable genetic counselor, the parents-to-be can weigh the pros and cons for themselves, and then decide how they want to handle the conundrum of prenatal genetic diagnosis.



References:

Nierneberg, C. (2014). Prenatal Genetic Screening Tests: Benefits & Risks. Retrieved February 24, 2016, from http://www.livescience.com/45949-prenatal-genetic-testing.html


Sidhu, J. (n.d.). Women Are Paying Huge Sums To Have a Daughter Rather Than a Son. Retrieved February 24, 2016, from http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/medical_examiner/2012/09/sex_selection_in_babies_through_pgd_americans_are_paying_to_have_daughters_rather_than_sons_.html


I wish I hadn't known: The ups and downs of prenatal testing. (n.d.). Retrieved February 24, 2016, from http://www.pregnancyandbaby.com/pregnancy/articles/944203/i-wish-i-hadnt-known-the-ups-and-downs-of-prenatal-testing


Artificial Intelligence- Veronica Nocella

Posted by Veronica Nocella in Science And Society - Best - E on


Science: My 5 minutes of Science focuses on the specific aspects of AI that scientists focus on, like human biology and neurology, & what is more significant in the further advancement of AI research. I also focus on Cybernetics, and how creating artificial simulations of animals was essentially the genesis of AI research

Society: I talk about the pros and cons of AI advancement; AI robots can help in natural disaster relief and in medicine, can lead to the creation of more efficient prosthetic limbs, and can eventually solve problems as large as climate change.

Self: Personally, I researched Artificial Intelligence because I used to be incredibly afraid of it. The idea of robots having human emotion and compassion made me immediately think we could be taken over by robots; I was afraid of creating something smarter than us. However, after I did further research, I realized how much AI robots could actually help us further develop our society for the better. 




​https://docs.google.com/a/scienceleadership.org/presentation/d/1kJWwT7zcZCfIEn8aPS9tl5dOWVsT2MRCfsipPvuOKQo/edit?usp=sharing

Angelica Owens 5 minutes of Science- Dementia

Posted by Angelica Owens in Science And Society - Best - E on

For my project, I focused on Dementia. Dementia is a disorder that causes you to lose your memory. When you have dementia, the cortex shrivels up and that damages the areas involved in thinking, planning and remembering. Shrinkage increases in the hippocampus which is an area that works on creating new memories and the ventricles grow larger. The symptoms are loss of memory, hard time communicating and language, the ability to focus and pay attention, reasoning and judgement and visual perception. To diagnose it, doctors do physical examination, careful medication history, lab tests, characteristics changes in history, day-to-day function and behavioral associated with each type. 


For Society, A lot of people can be diagnosed with it under 65 years old,  other terms are “early onset dementia”, “young onset dementia” and “working age dementia”. In the U.S, 5 million are reported to have age related dementia and in Louisiana about 100,000 have it. 1 in 6 women and 1 in 10 who live past 55 will develop dementia in their lifetime. People with often have to have a care provider since they can’t take of themselves. 


For Self, I chose to do this project because my grandmother had it for a while. She was declining rapidly. I don’t like this because there were times where my grandmother didn’t even know who I was and kept asking who I was. I would see her struggle to remember things and to try to take care of her. Two of my great aunt’s, my grandmother sisters have it too so I wanted to find out if it is genetic. 

5 minutes of science

Amelia Stuart - Five Minutes of Science - Footbinding

Posted by Amelia Stuart in Science And Society - Best - E on

The act of binding the feet from an early age (5-7)  so that the foot would essentially fold in half.
said to be inspired by a tenth century dancer in the Emperor's court who “bound her feet in the shape of a new moon” It gradually became a status symbol among the upper class and eventually became a rite of passage for all women.
 All the toes (except the big toe) are folded back and bound flat across the sole of the foot (making a triangle shape). The girls were forced to walk either back and forth in their rooms or long distances with their feet like this so that the toes and arches would break. Over time the wrappings and shoes became tighter and smaller as the toes and heel were pulled together.  
The “ideal” length of a bound foot was 3 inches and a woman’s marriage prospects almost entirely depended on the size of her foot. Represented the height of female refinement and foot size became a form of currency and a means of achieving upward mobility Despite the pain, millions of Chinese woman stood by their devotion to the tradition. People became blind to the torture that they were inflicting on their daughters; no doubt the effect of centuries of foot-binding becoming a form of social status.

Kadija`s 5-minutes of Science

Posted by Kadija Koita in Science And Society - Best - E on



Science

An orgasm is an intense height in pleasure during sexual activities, often called climaxing. During an orgasm, the brain receives a lot of nerves that flow through to the pleasure part of the brain, the same part that lights up when we eat something that we really like. This part also lights up during drug use, so when people say they are ‘addicted’ to love, they are telling the truth.  During an orgasm, muscle contractions in the pelvic and genital region take place. They are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, which also causes involuntary muscle spasms, and frequent body movements. After an orgasm, the body usually experiences the refractory period, which is the recovery for both parties. Men experience an increase of hormone oxytocin, which can be the determining factor that they can not orgasm right after the first one.


Society

A study at Rutgers University observed six fully ejaculatory orgasms were experienced in one male, although very rare. 18-year old man's refractory period is about 15 minutes, and 70-year old men are about 20 hours, but the average man is about 36 minutes. There are a lot of physiological changes as well, such as a relaxed mind caused by prolactin. Also it helps with breast cancer cells., because the oxytocin can help prevent the development of breast cancer cells


Self

I had no idea that an orgasm was connecting to all these things. I think that society makes it look a certain way that makes it not have all these beneficial attributes that can actually help your body. I mean, I don't have anything to say about it, but that abstinence is always key.

Work Cited:

  • "What Is an Orgasm?" - Health Questions. Web. 27 Apr. 2016.

"Anatomy of a Climax." EverydayHealth.com. Web. 27 Apr. 2016.


The Gay Gene?

Posted by Sean Morris in Science And Society - Best - E on

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  • Science:

  • Science has been able to find some genetic differences between gay men and straight men.While their is not an exact "gay gene" that dominates ones disposition. However some of the differences that have been found include physical differences and sizes, 9 small genetic regions were found to have differences within the bloodstream and gay men share some similarities in a part of the X chromosome- Xq28.

However these are not definite ways to tell if someone is gay or not. Many factors from environment and family can all have ways of effecting whether someone is gay or not. Also sexuality is a fairly fluid thing, so its very difficult, if impossible to have an exact determination what makes someone gay or not. 

  • Society: 

There's a large societal misconception as to whether being gay is a choice or not, and the science shows that it clearly isn't. It is a genetic fact that we are born like this. However we want to be careful with this science with so many homophobic regions and households in the world we kinda don't want to have a single way to single out gay people, that could lead to some disastrous societal consequences.

  • Self: 
As a gay man, I have sometimes been asked if its a choice or not, and I always knew it wasn't but was curious to the scientific reasons for it.  I was pleased to see some of the science for it, I hope that scientists proceed with caution while pursuing this further so that the future can remain safe for myself and people like me. 


https://docs.google.com/a/scienceleadership.org/presentation/d/1s_vgszqJSFJ_4Cz8tz5XSA41dT2eWXTeN3DOcz8Wd_M/edit?usp=sharing

Science Of Laughter

Posted by Brittany Atkinson in Science And Society - Best - E on

​ For my 5 minutes of science, I decided to focus on laughter. Laughter is commonly associated with the frontal lobe and other unspecified regions of the brain that control emotional, cognitive, and motor responses. Laughter unlike talking or breathing, causes the body to lose air instead of bringing it in at timed intervals, hence the praise, "Dying of Laughter." There are not a lot of studies done on laughter. It is known to be something that is common in most mammals such as primates, rats, and famously hyenas, and is thought of as primitive and mating call-like. In the social aspect of laughter, you are more likely to laugh in a group of friends than you are by yourself. This doesn't mean it is all good laughter. There are two kinds of laughter known as Posed and Real laughter. Posed laughter is known more in social situations as a sign of understanding and engagement, while real laughter, also known as "helpless" laughter, is commonly associated with the response from tickling. This brings us to the stress relief part of laughter. Tickling is one of the most stressful physical acts that can be exerted on the body by another person; laughter is the only way to cause the body to not go into complete panic mode. Robert Levenson did a study at Berkeley College that involved couples being asked stressful questions. It was found that couples who laughed more during the experiment controlled their stress levels more than the couples that did not. 
The reason I chose this topic is because I am someone who laughs way more than I should and I wanted to know why. I found that I do to tend to laugh more when I'm trying to rid myself of a stressful situation. Also as a kid I would have long fits of erratic laughter where I couldn't stop, and didn't know what I was particularly laughing at. Maybe I was a very stressed 7 year old or maybe my frontal lobe was very active, either way it would being a satisfying solution. 

MDMA The Party Drug

Posted by Sydne Hopkins-Baker in Science And Society - Best - E on

​Science:
MDMA also known as Molly or a stronger version of  Ecstasy or even Scooby Snacks was created by Anton Kollisch who wanted to make a pill or drug that could help soldiers with PTSD and abnormal bleeding, but the strong was really too strong . It made the soldiers happier but at the same time they couldn't think right. BY the 1940’s-50’s, mixed with other chemicals and ground down into a powder that turned into a easy popping pill, or heated to be shot using a needle MDMA became a popular party drug. People who take MDMA or Molly found that they were a lot happier.  Your brain floods with at least three or more neurotransmitters like, Serotonin, Dopamine or even Norepinephrine that gave you more energy and could focus more. At the same time your senses would be heightened such as seeing and hearing clearer (hence why it’s used a lot in clubs and concerts). Some consider it as a world of psychedelic colors.When taken as a pill it takes about 15 to 20 minutes to enter your system or bloodstream and the effects begin. It last about 3-6 hours depending how it was made and the dosage. Even though there are positive effects from using Molly there’s always negatives. Impaired judgment, False sense of affection, Confusion, Depression and Anxiety, Sleep problems and insomnia, Paranoia, Muscle tension, Faintness and chills or swelling the common Nausea and if Molly is taken often it can lead to usage of other and stronger drugs.

Society:

Since MDMA is a party drug it is commonly used by high school students, college students and some adults.  Because it is so cheap ranging from $25-40, 1 out of every 10 college students have experimented with Molly and  98% of college students who had used ecstasy had also used marijuana. Sometimes MDMA is replaced with PMA which is another cheaper version to look like Molly but because each dose isn’t as strong you buy and use more making it easier to OD. People should also know the difference between Molly and Ecstasy even though they both come from the same chemical compound. Ecstasy is mixed with other drugs or chemicals like rat poison, bath salts, baking soda, LSD. Compared to Molly which is straight MDMA they both a lethal but Ecstasy could be considered cheaper. Because teenagers are still going to be partying and going out there’s been an increase of Molly consumption (especially in the US).


Self:

I did research on MDMA for my chemistry BM I wanted to share some of the information I found out. I had to do more research on what’s really happening in the brain that makes the pill works the way it does. I like parties and it’s could be warned about what’s out there and what people are really getting into. It’s something like teenagers do dabble in a lot of things during college and Molly could be one of them. We’re all going to college soon and it’s good to know what’s what.


Links:

"MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly)." NIDA for Teens. NIH...Turning Discovery Into Health, 2009. Web. 15 Apr. 2016. <http://teens.drugabuse.gov/drug-facts/mdma-ecstasy-or-molly>.


Roderick, Ryan. "18 Things About The Drug “Molly” That Might Be Important For You To Know." BuzzFeed News. BuzzFeed, Inc, 3 Sept. 2013. Web. 16 Mar. 2016. <http://www.buzzfeed.com/ryanhatesthis/things-about-the-drug-molly-that-might-be-important-for-y#.blB5dQZaB>.


"Understanding Ecstasy, MDMA and Molly." Ecstasy Addiction and Abuse. Recovery Worldwide LLC, 1999. Web. 20 Apr. 2016. <https://www.addictioncenter.com/drugs/ecstasy/>.

Adam and Eve

Posted by Anna Sugrue in Science And Society - Best - E on

​Science

3.8 billion years ago, the Earth was mostly ocean. And that ocean was populated by billions of tiny archaea and bacteria. That was life. Life stayed like that for 2 billion years. These prokaryotes existed in an “energy canyon” they did not have the energy to get bigger and more complicated, and the only way they could develop the mechanisms to get bigger and more complicated, they would need energy. It’s a paradox. So for 2 billion years, nothing really changed, and there was no reason life wouldn’t continue like that for billions of more years. But one day, complicated, diverse life began to develop. The theory as to how this miracle happened is as follows. An archaean (a bigger single celled organism) and a bacterium (a smaller organism) are floating along, and they happen to bump into each other. Improbably, impossibly, the two cells merge. The bacterium, now stuck inside a bigger cell, should struggle to survive. It shouldn’t be able to eat, or live, or reproduce. The larger cell should protest, should excrete the imposter bacterium. But that didn’t happen. Very improbably, very impossibly, the bacteria, called a mitochondria, survived. The big cell fed it, allowed it to reproduce, built mechanisms to keep the growing population alive. 

You might be wondering, but where did the energy for this growth come from? What about that energy canyon. The answer is across the cell membrane of the mitochondria. They are a special type of cell that produces a large electric charge across its membrane. It’s an electric charge equivalent to a bolt of lighting. So it grew, and diversified, and made proteins and DNA and organelles, it reproduces and spread, and over the next 1.8 billion years that 2 cell merge evolved into all the complex, eukaryotic life on Earth today. 


Society

Based on this theory, the story in the Book of Genesis of Adam and Eve, of two things coming together and creating life, doesn’t seem that far from evolutionary biology. If Genesis is, as many Christian scientists believe, a romanization of reality, then this theory of evolution might fit into the Bible. 

The other societal implication that arises from this theory is the possibility of alien life. Because of the pure improbability of how complicated life came to be, it’s statistically very unlikely that this could have happened anywhere else, no matter the vastness of the universe. However, it is not that unlikely that we could find bacteria roaming the surface of far away planets. But alas, no E.T.


Self

Inside of myself, there are mitochondria and DNA remnant of that original merge. If you look hard enough, you can see how I am related to the origins of life. 


Sources

Abumrad, J. (Producer). (2016, April 6). Radiolab [Audio podcast]. Retrieved From http://www.radiolab.org/story/cellmates/ 

Rosen, J. (2015, October 19). Scientists may have found the earliest evidence of life on Earth. Science Magazine. doi:10.1126/science.aad4732

Brom, R. H. (2004, August 10). Adam, Eve, and Evolution. Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www.catholic.com/tracts/adam-eve-and-evolution  

Hangovers

Posted by Kara Rosenberg in Science And Society - Best - E on

​Science
The actual cause of hangovers is unknown. We know that a hangover is a result from drinking too much alcohol, but why does alcohol cause hangovers? Some of the symptoms of a hangover include headache, fatigue, nausea, sweating, confusion, stomach issues. Many people believe that hangovers are a result of dehydration, given the fact that when you drink a lot of alcohol you have to pee a lot, and you're probably not drinking a lot of water. However, many studies have proven that there is no correlation between high levels of the hormones associated with dehydration and the severity of a hangover. It's likely that dehydration causes some of the symptoms of a hangover, but dehydration is not the direct cause of a hangover. 
Another theory as to where hangovers come from is that high levels of alcohol interfere with your body's natural chemical balance. In order to process high amount of alcohol, your body has to convert the enzyme NAD+ into an alternate form NADH. When you have too much NADH and not enough NAD+, your cells aren’t capable of doing a lot of things they normally do like absorbing glucose or regulating electrolyte levels. However this has also been shot down by a study that found when people are drunk they don’t necessarily have lower electrolyte or glucose levels. 
The most compelling theory so far is that hangovers result from a release of the toxic compound Acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde is the first byproduct of processing alcohol, and can be 10-30x more toxic than alcohol itself. In a controlled study, Acetaldehyde has been proven to cause all of the same symptoms as a hangover.
Hangovers have also been proven to be slightly genetic. Certain people don't experience hangovers as much as others. Sometimes, this is due to race. It is common for women to experience more severe hangovers than men, but that can be explained by the fact that women generally weigh less than men. Age also plays a role in hangover severity, but that can be due to the fact that as you get older you are less likely to binge drink, or your body is becoming more and more used to alcohol.

Society
Binge drinking almost always leads to a severe hangover, and many college students binge drink. In fact, 80% of college students say they drink on a regular basis. Many college students binge drink because they work all week then the second they get out of class, drink in huge amounts. Hangovers can make you extremely sick, and sometimes too sick to go out or work. Some things you can do to relieve a hangover are drinking water or sports drinks, eating light, and taking pain relievers. 

Self
As someone who is going to college in a couple of months, I want to be prepared for this new lifestyle. I want to be educated on why so many college students get sick when they party, and how to help myself and my friends be safe. 

Sleep Paralysis

Posted by Mia Weathers-Fowler in Science And Society - Best - E on

​"The evil twin of lucid dreaming."

Science

Sleep paralysis is a semi common sleep disorder. It either affects people when they are in hypnagogic sleep or hypnapompic sleep which is when you are going to sleep or waking up. When you are falling asleep your body releases chemicals to paralyze you during REM sleep. This is natural and is done so that you don’t physically move during your dreams, it is a protective measure. When you fall into SOREM (Sudden Onset REM) these chemicals are released at a different rate and can cause more malfunctions in brain activity. There are a lot of different theories as to why sleep paralysis happens. A lot of them are spiritual and religious, but scientifically there is still not a definite answer. One theory is that when you sleep on your back, some of your airways can become blocked. So your brain will wake your body just enough for you to roll over or snort to get more oxygen. If your body wakes you without shutting the valve that releases the chemicals you are "awake", but paralyzed. As your mind becomes more alert the amygdala is triggered, which activates the body’s fight or flight system. But since you can’t do either of those things you panic. This is where the unexplainable hallucinations begin. It is like an extension of the dream while you are “awake.” The hallucinations fall into two categories. Hyper realistic multi sensory hallucinations or vestibular-motor hallucinations. HRM hallucinations involve visual and auditory hallucinations while VM hallucinations involve body movement like floating. 


Society

There have been recorded medical cases of sleep paralysis going back 300 years. It has existed in art for perhaps even longer. 20-50 percent of adults have experienced some form of sleep paralysis with only 5% experiencing the hallucinations. One of the most fascinating things is the similarity between the accounts from all over the world. The most common visions are the shadow man, the old hag, and the succubus. There is a Netflix documentary called the Nightmare that follows the stories of people with recurring sleep paralysis. They delve further into the spiritual and religious reasons behind sleep paralysis. They believe it is a communion with the spirit realm or with the devil. There’s also a lot of people who believe they’ve been abducted by aliens. There have also been some deaths that are thought to be caused by sleep paralysis--fear induced heart attacks. 


Self

When I first learned about this it interested me because of all the weird things your brain and body can create. Also I was fascinated by the fact that people who suffer from sleep paralysis have similar visions. It could be that we all have similar fears, or that there is a supernatural explanation that is beyond science. P.S. They say that it’s contagious. So if you learn too much about it, you’ll have it. Hehe. 


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