​This blog post will basically touch the simple facts, the history of genetics, etc.

1886: Gregor Mendel discovered that traits of offspring depend on the parents traits, which may be dominant or recessive. ( but this was somehow lost)

1902: Theodore Boveri & Walter Sutton used color to observe chromosomes 

1905: Nettle Stevens found out that all homologous chromosomes are the same except the ones that determines sex (X,Y)

1909: Thomas H Morgan made many important researches in fly genetics and linked analysis that apply to all diploid organisms

1941: Beadle and Tatum discovered that each gene encodes one protein

1944: Oswald Avery identified DNA as genetic material

1953: Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins showed that the DNA is a double helix, Thomas Watson and Frances Crick figured out that the base of the double helix enabled replication 

1970: Tamin and Baltimore found a enzyme used to clone genes 

1981: First transgenic mammals are made

1996: Iam Wilmut cloned the lamb Dolly from adult mammary gland tissue  

 Your genetics decipher what you will look like, and your features.

There are many things you can learn about your genetics like your DNA and what factors are inside of it to make it important, also your genotype/phenotype, and what a recessive gene and dominant gene is.

Lets start simple:

DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid. Your DNA is a molecule that carries all of your genetic information

Genotype describes what certain alleles are on a certain chromosome

Alleles are a form of a gene that play part on a specific chromosome, which controls a certain trait.

There are dominant and recessive alleles

Dominant alleles are upper case and usually the trait that comes out the most

Recessive is usually shown with an lower case letter, and in this allele it is usually the trait that does not show unless the organism is homozygous.

Homozygous just means that both of the alleles are either dominant or recessive

Heterozygous means that one of the alleles are dominant and one is recessive  

Phenotype is the physical characteristics of the gene

There are many ways that you can determine what exactly an offspring’s traits will be by using genotype. One way is to look at the alleles of the two organisms. Also if you really wanted to be accurate you will put them in a punnet square.

Punnet squares is just a fancy word to describe the separation of alleles to figure out what an offspring may look like, also to fish out the chances of having a certain child.

For example a mother and father are about to have a child they want a child with blue eyes. The mother has two alleles bb, which are homozygous. The father also has two alleles Gb, which are heterozygous. Knowing that the father has green eyes, because greens allele is dominant and blue is recessive you can figure out what is the chance of the child having blue eyes.  

By looking at this you can see that the child has a 50% chance of having green eyes or having blue eyes. But what if the father was also homozygous?

In the PSSA I do not know exactly what kind of questions will be asked, but make sure you do the study island and also look up a few things to make sure you understand such as:

Where your DNA gets its information from and what it is made up of and how its held together

How many chromosomes a human has (46)

Different types of gene disorders and also different types oh names for each type of gene

What kind of diseases are gene orientated

What is Structure and Function.

 Function and structure are related, because of a certain structure a living thing make contain makes the object function the way it does. The are a lot of structural future in humans, plants, animal and all living things. The relationship of a structure and function is the structuring levels from molecules to organism ensure successful functioning in all living organism and living system. Note one structure can have multiple function.From my under standing structure and function can be broken down in to several part like chemical level which deal with  atoms proton etc as the structure and what they do is the function.

Classification of Living Things

Living things are placed into groups based on both structural and functional similarities. For example, bacteria are prokaryotic cells, which means they lack a true nucleus. These are structural characteristics. A functional characteristic which defines bacteria is that they reproduce by binary fission. Plant cells are structurally different to other cells because they contain a large central vacuole and plastids such as chloroplasts. These structural features also support a plant’s function, since the presence of chloroplasts allows the plant to carry out photosynthesisExample of a structure and function:

Amino acids structure directly affects its function. It’s a lock and key method that cannot work unless the structure fit together. When they fit they can carry out the function of speeding up a chemical process.

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• Chemical level – the structure of molecules determines the properties of substances, which, in turn, determine their functions. For example, the chemical structure of metals allows them to conduct electricity, which makes metals useful as conductors
  

   

Cellular level – the structure of cells is linked to their function. For example, lung cells are very thin, which allows gases to diffuse easily through the cells. 

Cellular Processes

DNA replication   is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their DNA; it is the basis for biological inheritance

Practice Question

For this question we know that cellular respiration    
The process of cell in which cells turn food into usable energy in the form of ATP. We know we consume oxygen and then release carbon dioxide. Looking on the option a only part it true .We consume energy, but we don’t absorb energy we use our stored energy. B is no right at all we don’t produce oxygen. C is the correct answer we consume oxygen and release energy. D is like B so it wrong also.

Dwindling supply and negative environmental impact is pushing the public to embrace renewable energy sources in exchange of conventional fossil fuels. When burned, coal and oil release tons of carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere, with the potential to cause catastrophic impacts on the environment. The impending threat of global warming is pressing environmental scientists and engineers to improve the systems we use to gather renewable energy from unlimited natural resources. Each method of generating usable electricity has its own set of environmental problems, but people are always researching ways to improve them. Compared to the environmental consequences of burning fossil fuel to generate electricity, the pros of using renewable energy sources outweigh the cons.

Wind Power:

While large amounts of land are required to have a productive wind farm, the space between turbines is not exclusively for the turbines only. The towers can be constructed on leased farmland, where they can sit amongst the crops and animals. Cattle and other farm animals are often seen grazing nearby, resting in their shade, or using them as a scratching post. Farmers can plant crops right up to the base and several studies have shown that crops like corn and soybeans benefit from the decreased frosts and fungus caused by the turbines’ presence. An unexpected benefit is that wind turbines are already combating global warming in their own way. Studies have shown that the turbulence generated by the turning of their blades can keep the surrounding temperatures from getting too hot in the day and too cold in the night. Studies imply that crops planted near the turbines are protected from damaging frost and fungi because of the impact they have on the surrounding temperature. The most extreme issue raised by the use of wind turbines is the impact they have on local bird populations. By doing a population count before construction, during construction, and after construction, scientists are able to gauge whether or not the wind farm produces a negative effect on local populations. There are cases in which rare and endangered bird species have died after flying into the spinning blades. Studies on the common causes of bird death place wind farms towards the bottom of the list, with the worst offenders being the Transmission lines of conventional fossil fuel power plants, hunters, and domestic cats. (graph in Wikipedia of bird casualties)

Hydropower:

Hydropower plants harness the natural energy of flowing water, and produce zero emissions. Any of the negative impact a dam causes on its environment is often magnified by the size of the dam.  New, large-scale dams are rare because the most suitable sites are usually under environmental protection. As a result, the demand for hydropower is failing. The development of new dams is further impacted by frequent protests from environmental activists who seek to preserve the natural flow of the river and the preservation of local fish populations. Fish counts confirm that the spinning blades of the generators can kill unwary fish, and not all fish will think to use the built in fish ladders many power plants install to please activists. Some power plants use flashing lights to direct the fish away from the turbines, but so far, the safest solution seems to be to shut them down during fish migrations. This solution is ineffective for the power plant, and the company looses money during this time. Fish aren’t the only animals that are affected by a hydropower dam. When a new dam is built, the flow may need to be redirected in order to maximize power generation, which can impact wildlife on land and their environment. The dam reserves water upstream, creating a man-made lake that floods the surrounding forest while downriver of the dam; the water level is liable to drop. Case studies of the current impact of established dams provide scientists with the information they need to improve the dams and reduce environmental consequences. 

Solar Energy:

Solar power cells are growing in popularity, especially in urban areas on roofs above the trees. The main con of solar energy is the hazardous materials used in production of the solar cells, and waste materials left behind, as well as the necessary space required for installation and the large price tag. Large-scale solar energy farms are very expensive, and they take up a lot of space, since they need to have the sun on them at all times. The space in between cells cannot be used for anything, since there isn’t much space left. Because they take up so much space, smaller cells meant for personal use have started appearing in cities and towns. Instead of filling fields, they are being places on the roofs of homes, airport hangers, and other places with space may have otherwise been left vacant. In addition to generating a lot of energy for personal use, a building that generates more energy then they can use are able to earn money by putting that power onto the grid. A problem with small-scale urban solar cells is that they are made of the same hazardous materials as the large-scale cells, and may produce toxic fumes during a fire. These fumes are dangerous for firefighters who may need to enter the building. Current research on experimental solar power aims to reduce hazardous materials and waste in production, as well as to improve the efficiency of the small-scale solar cells. One of the several improvements in progress is a solar concentrator, which is used to generate electricity, and when mounted on solar trackers, can adjust its position to optimize solar energy gathered. Another option being researched is space-based solar power designed to sit on satellites, and have the potential to gather ten times the amount of energy then they would on earth. By installing efficient solar panels in cities, it is possible to generate much of the power needed there daily, and severely reducing the need for coal and oil power plants. 

Sample Question:

What are the potential consequences of using Hydropower?

1. a. Fish will get caught in the blades of the turbines
2. b. The river upstream might flood the surrounding woods
3. c. Concerned local activists may protest
4. d. All of the above

By reading the passage on hydropower, you can judge what will happen when you build a hydropower dam. That way, you can eliminate any answer that doesn’t make sense, and pick the answer that you think is correct.

Why are scientists trying to improve the design of solar energy cells?

1. a. Because the sun is patchy, and it’s difficult to gather enough energy
2. b. Because solar energy cells may release toxic fumes during a house fire
3. c. Because the materials used during production are expensive and hazardous
4. d. Because the large energy farms are less efficient then small urban solar cells

Many of these answer might seem like the correct answer, in this case, you would need to look back at the passage and start eliminating answers. If you can’t judge which answer would be the right one, go with the answer that either feels the best, or that seems least wrong.

Sources:

http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/technology_and_impacts/impacts/environmental-impacts-of.html 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power#Experimental_solar_power

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_farm#Environmental_and_aesthetic_impact

http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/2167515/report-wind-turbines-little-impact-bird-populations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_wind_power#Impact_on_wildlife

http://www.hydroquebec.com/sustainable-development/documentation/etudes_impacts.html

Something things that have been tested or experimented happened with Darwin and his exploration. He began this world known theory when he started to explore how different genes work and the processes in which they create new life forms.

The Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old and humans appeared within the last-2 million years. Microorganisms appeared first - 3.4 million years ago. The plants of the land appeared about 400 million years ago and it was about 225 million years ago when mammals and dinosaurs walked the earth. Which evolves into the topic of Natural selection which acts upon the mutation that are inherited from one generation to the next. Out of all the type of  genes there are only the genes in the sperm cell will get passed on to the future generations. Thus causing any potential alter to the configuration of any population. Enabling us to keep track of how things change over time, which is what we call Evolution.

Sample Questions

1. In what ways would an animal that eats earthworms with its beak evolve to eat berries off a tree?
a. It’s beak would get smaller for more precise grabbing.
b. They will change color to resemble a tree.
c. Their claws will be able to cling on trees.
d. Nothing will change.

2. An animal that lived in water and adapted to live on land, would most likely be a:
a. amphibian
b. invertebrate  
c. Cold - blooded
d. Reptiles

There are six chemical reactions.

Combustion is when oxygen combines with another compound to create water and carbon dioxide, this reaction is considered to be exothermic which simply means that this reaction creates heat.

Synthesis this reaction is when two or more simple compounds come together in order to create a complicated compound.

Decomposition is the complete opposite of synthesis, this occurs when a molecule that is complex breaks down into simpler molecules.

Single displacement is when one element trades places with another element while in a compound.

Double displacement is when the anions and cations of two different molecules switch places, which then turns into two complete different compounds.

Acid-Base is a certain kind of double displacement reaction that happens when a acid and base react with one another. The H+ion in the acid reacts with the OH ion in the base.

Some experiments that have been conducted by us are mixing potassium promaginite and glycerin that causes an exothermic reaction. Based on the six different types of Chemical reactions which type of chemical reaction does this experiment give?

Another experiment example: Sodium and water in chlorine gas which produces a lot of heat but it also turns into sodium chloride which is just common salt. What reaction does it give?

A third example is when Helium is cooled to -271 degrees Celsius. It is called lambda point. Once it hits this point it is considered helium II or helium superfluid.

What reaction is this?

http://edtech2.boisestate.edu/halej/573/jigsaw2.html

 http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/thermo/faq/exothermic-endothermic-examples.shtml

Things that affect Reaction are

AGITATION:  Anything that cause particles to move, shaking and stirring are actions that result in  the movement of particles. This leads to more collisions, and a higher reaction rate.

CATALYST: Is something that helps initiate a reaction, but isn't considered a reactant or a product. It increases the rate at which chemical reactions can occur. The catalyst is not depleted during the reaction. 

CONCENTRATION:

When there are more particles in a given volume, the amount of times these particles will collide is greater when the are less particles. The more  particles/less space per volume, the faster the reaction will occur.

PRESSURE: The higher the pressure there is on a container, the lower the volume will be (less space, which leads to more collision and more often), which will also increase the speed of the reaction.

SURFACE AREA:  The amount of particles found on the surface of that are open to collision.  Larger objects have surfaces with particles that are less exposed, which means fewer collisions.  Objects that are smaller have more particles in contact with a surface, which would allow for more collisions to occur.  Chemical reactions occur at a higher rate when their reactants cover more surface area.